Summaries of papers - LSIRD LFA livestock conference, Ireland.

The James Hutton Institute

This page is no longer updated. The Macaulay Land Use Research Institute joined forces with SCRI on 1 April 2011 to create The James Hutton Institute.

Please visit the James Hutton Institute website.

Introduction to the work of the LSIRD and summary of the results of the workshops held in Arles, France, and Metsovo, Greece on environmental management and rural development as objectives for LFA livestock production systems.

Report on the workshops held in Granada, Spain and Witzenhausen, Germany on the implications of developments in rural policy on LFA livestock and on value-adding to livestock products.

Extensive sheep farming in Central France : diversity of management types in relation to savings of concentrates, product marketing and labour availability: Consequences for grazing organisation

*INRA Departements SAD and ENA, Laboratoire Adaptation des Herbivores aux Milieux.

** INRA Station d'Amélioration des Plantes Fourragères 86500 Lusignan, France.

The practices used in the extensive management of 13 flocks (stocking rate lower than 1 UGB/ha SFP) in the region of Montmorillon (Central Western France) were analysed with reference to three factors determining the farming objectives - the desire:

2) to cope with the market requirements (more sales of lambs in the first half of the year),

Three management types were identified, laying the emphasis on minimum use of concentrates, on early sales at the beginning of the year, and on both at the same time. In the most self-sufficient situations, savings in concentrates were achieved not only on the feeding of the lambs, but on the mother's nutrition as well. Simplicity of management, identified by a stable grouping of the ewes, was obvious in situations where the farmer was working on his own (4 cases out of 6). Gross margins per ewe were roughly equivalent whatever the management types may be. Each combination of mating dates and type of lambs produced define a particular chain of seasonal markers for grazing organisation. Farm case studies illustrate how the management of this seasonal chain of markers refers to:

1) adjustment of the stocking rate to available grass resources during the winter;

Socio-economic and marketing aspects of livestock regimes in regions a) with still existing low intensity livestock systems; b) where the implementation of such systems could be a future alternative and c) where even low intensity livestock systems have little future.

In many mountainous LFA´s in Germany, dairy production has been of primary economic importance until recently. There is, however, considerable doubt as to whether dairy regimes which operate under these harsh environmental conditions can possibly have an optimistic future - at least when viewed from the stand-point of main-stream agricultural economics. This assumption is supported by the AGENDA 2000 proposals, which suggest that future CAP measures should be developed away from price support mechanisms into support systems which focus on direct farm payments. Such schemes will probably be based on area payments and additionally on subsidiarity in order to share costs. Taking into account falling milk prices and declining price support, payments to maintain dairy production in LFA´s will have to be much higher than they are at present. It can be assumed that this extra money will not be available and it is expected, therefore, that grassland dominated LFA´s will be forced increasingly to develop into regions characterised by extensive livestock keeping systems. The reasons why agricultural activities in less favoured areas should be continued, instead of being afforested, can be explained by the fundamental factor of agriculture as a means of maintaining social, cultural and ecological commodities. Some problems, possibilities and limits of extensive livestock systems as a new way of farming are presented for case study areas a) with pre-existing low intensity livestock systems b) where the implementation of such systems could be a future alternative, and c) where even low intensity livestock systems have little future.

The socio-economics of sheep and goat farming in Greece and the implications for future rural development.

The farming of sheep and goats is the most important activity in the animal production sector of Greece, both in terms of people benefiting from this (about 300,000 families) and the overall income (45% of the gross value of animal production). There are 9,200,000 sheep and 5,600,000 goats, of which 95% of the adult females are milked for the production of cheese.

The paper gives the most recent characteristics of the sector in terms of system of production, livestock utilised, livestock performance, farm economics, farmers' sociological profile, as well as the processing and marketing sector.

The future implications of the continuation of sheep and goat farming in Greece are explored through a study of different scenarios, after examination of the frameworks (E.U., National, Regional) within which the sector is operating. It is concluded that this sector will continue to play the role of a locomotive in continuing to support the existence of the human presence on the LFA's of Greece.

The process of change in livestock systems on small family farms towards the application of new development programs at a local level: The example of mountainous region of Evritania

The case of small ruminant farming in the Hellenic Mountain regions is well known. Even clearer are the reasons that hold this activity at the same levels over the years, mainly because of the subsidies for the important herds. On the other hand, the latest rural development initiatives (especially within the PIM and LEADER programs) which mobilise the endogenous potential of a given region, integrate the small family farmers in the development of the region.

This contribution aims to present the current situation as well as the future of the small family breeders in the mountains of Evritania, in the Central Greece.

Five years ago, most researchers affirmed that there was no future in Evritania for the small family farmers which practised extensive farming of small ruminants. As it is today, in the region of Evritania, there exist a great number of small family farmers that not only manage to survive but have also improved their livestock.

Our research indicates that important changes have taken place in the economy and society of the mountain population by the introduction of the new economical activities, where the livestock is one element of the pluriactivity in these regions. In other words, the extensive livestock of small family breeders survives not as a an separate activity as it was before, but as a part of genuinely integrated rural development

Husbandry systems and market segmentation of products from LFAs - the example of Luberon lamb in France.

Jacques Lasseur, Jean-Pierre Boutonnet, Danielle Ponchelet, Marie-Claude Leouffre, Christian Deverre, France

In the Luberon area, an E.U. agri-environmental program is supporting the re-opening of overgrown pasture by sheep husbandry. Our study is based on a survey of farmers, consumers and markets. The objectives are to identify the diversity of sheep farms involved in such operations, the consequences of implication and the capacity of the market to identify and give more value to a specific product coming from these husbandry systems.

Types of farms are identified according to their structure, farm enterprises and land use. This diversity results from changes over the last decades. Land uses change too : some types of husbandry systems have become mainly concerned with cultivated areas, some new systems mainly deal with rangelands. Farmers also market different types of lambs but these are similar to those of non LFA systems. The market segmentation follows other patterns : small young white lambs for Spain, standard lambs for the french market, heavy hogget rams for the muslim consumers. So extra costs due to implication in such operations are not paid through the lamb, but through public payments. This underlines the importance of new CAP measures, but these have to be conceived for promoting innovations integrated in local development.

Future applications of web-based information and telecooperation in integrated research on livestock production

German Centre for Documentation and Information in Agriculture (ZADI), Germany.

This paper discusses how new forms of telecooperation using the Internet can lead to more effective research. By using available information resources it is possible to react timely to new development trends, to base the scientific work on previous experiences and existing research results and to avoid the repetition of research. The creation of research networks on the Internet gives new possibilities in the agricultural sector for research beyond single institutions and individual topics.

Information networks and data catalogues which order the available information under scientific, organisational and geographical aspects give a rapid and goal-oriented access to worldwide Internet sources. Several examples will show the structure and the functions of information networks in the fields of animal husbandry and animal breeding.

Scientific literature and project information are especially relevant for research. The new developments allow important information sources to be directly accessed from the workplace on the Internet. This use will be exemplified by on-line searchable literature databases which for example contain full texts or bibliographical details of publications from the subject animal production. Information about current or finished research projects can also be found with help of the Internet via online searchable databases or through publication lists of research institutions. Of increasing importance for the availability of sources are on-line searchable library catalogues in combination with an ordering service.

For research management the Internet with its opportunities for telecooperation is an ideal basis. Scientists and research institutions that could serve as contacts for answering scientific questions and as partners for joint projects are easily found with the help of address and expert directories, while discussion forums offer a place for the exchange of ideas and experiences. Increasingly, telecooperation is used for the solution of common research questions. Several networks provide good examples for combining a decentralised holding of data with a centralised access. On the basis of the EU project European Initiative for Agricultural Research for Development (EIARD) will be explained how the world-wide networks of scientists and institutions make it today possible to improve research and international co-operation.

Report of feasibility of LSIRD study on the establishment of cashmere production in the EU.

The establishment of new cashmere goat enterprises from the importation of embryos or animals, or by the grading-up of native goats using imported cashmere bucks or semen, is considered. Although national herds comprising substantial numbers of breeding does are likely to be established more quickly from live animal imports, the physical outputs and monetary income of individual cashmere enterprises are likely to be significantly greater if they are based on livestock established from embryos or by grading-up.

Estimates of gross margins of five contrasting production systems range from about 45 ECU per breeding doe in a system in which surplus kids are sold at approximately six months of age and from which there are no sales of breeding stock, to almost 220 ECU per doe where the surplus juvenile stock are sold at approximately 18 months of age after the harvesting of a second cashmere fleece, and from which sales of breeding stock constitute a major source of income.

Cashmere goats can be used as grazing tools to bring about changes in botanical composition and to reduce the risk of fire in forested areas and of under-utilised vegetation. The use of goats to eradicate gorse and bracken can result in benefits worth 29 to 36 ECU per goat per year.

The economics of incorporating cashmere production as an output from dairy goat enterprises is also briefly addressed.

It is concluded that cashmere production constitutes an economically viable avenue for livestock diversification, well suited to marginal areas, and accords with many of the objectives of the EU's Common Agricultural Policy.

The introduction of moose to more southerly regions of Europe for the management of wetland biotopes.

The abandonment of agricultural practices, such as livestock breeding, and the use of reed and osier beds in the wetlands of temperate Europe has over many years led to the closing of landscapes by trees, such as willow, alder and silver birch.

This shrub encroachment of shrubs and trees in valley landscapes, previously open, has led to a significant erosion of biodiversity. To combat these changes, different authorities have tried a range of measures. The classical approach is the revival of the livestock systems with funding by agri-environmental measures. However, for this to succeed, it is necessary already to have farmers in the area, which is often not the case.

In contrast, the authorities responsible for land resource management (Natural Parks, Natural Reserves, Hunters) favour the use of semi-wild herds, such as hardy breeds of horses or cattle, kept throughout the year without any management. Such management, which is a close approximation to primitive systems, has been particularly well tested and validated over the past 20 years in the peat bogs of the Vernier marsh (Normandy). This bog is the most important in France and is the responsibility of the Parc Naturel Regional de Brotonne.

It has been found that in some conditions, hardy livestock are not an optimum tool. Even though horses and cattle consumers some woody material, they are still primarily dependent on succulent herbage. This characteristic is a problem in an environment where the herbaceous layer is scarce, due to the presence of ligneous species. Moreover, the shrub infestations occur mainly on weak soils, on which the classical herbivores, even light ones, exert a ground pressure of 750-800 g/cm2. For these both reasons, it was envisaged to use animals from the cervidae family. These animals possess a digestive system which is better adapted to a diet containing high proportion of ligneous specie.

The moose (Alces alces) consumes during the winter between 20 and 25 kg of branches, twigs and bark from pioneer species of the wetlands. Moreover, the specific structure of its hoof allows it, when the terrain is soft, to rest on 4 claws (per foot), linked together by an inter-digital membrane, which confers to this species a ground pressure of only 420-440 g/cm2 . The utilisation of moose in wetland biotopes does not constitute the introduction of an exotic species. Rather, it would be the re-introduction of a "missing link" in a fragile ecosystems. A nowadays unusual animal like the moose, maintaining a natural landscape, offering an important diversity and being interesting for the nature tourism, could be an important economic asset for these regions, where the failure of agricultural intensification on one hand and the change in the perception of humid areas on the other hand, lead to re-conversions based on sustainable development and land resource management.

This multi-disciplinary study, undertaken within the framework of the LSIRD network, and also supported by the Fondation de France assesses the feasibility of this idea, within the context of wetland management in the wild temperate wetlands of Europe.

The ostrich has been farmed for over 150 years in southern Africa, first for its feathers and recently for the hide. The hide is the product for which an established market exists, primarily in the Far East for the manufacture of luxury goods, although the meat is increasingly important to the economics of production. The ostrich is a good candidate as a red meat alternative in that it produces a very lean red meat.

Production in other parts of the world became possible when Namibia achieved independence. Ostrich farming is now an international industry with South Africa still by far the major player. There is no reliable source of information on global production and markets for ostrich products.

Initially the market in Europe was for breeder birds, followed by a transition to a slaughter market over the last year or so.

Many legislative, welfare and operational issues have still largely to be addressed. Because of its history little knowledge about ostrich production has been gained through published scientific research.

Progress towards a successful ostrich industry in the UK and the European Union is hampered by lack of market development for meat and leather products; lack of research into ostrich production under European conditions; and the lack of developed infrastructure and a paucity of both market intelligence and technical information.

Demand for ostrich meat is good in most countries of Europe, but is being supplied predominantly from outside the EU. Increased global production in 1996-7 has combined with the recent Asian crisis, causing the currently depressed state of the industry world-wide.

The future viability of the enterprise will require the development of new products and markets for the highly durable and attractive leather, as well as increasing the existing demand for ostrich meat.

Despite a lack of official support, experience in the UK and elsewhere over eight years of rearing ostriches has formed the basis of a sustainable industry, combining production, processing and marketing within the EU itself.

Research is needed to resolve the outstanding husbandry and welfare issues, but the ostrich offers the opportunity to develop a range of value-adding industries, and is therefore suited to the concept of integrated rural development in the less favoured areas of Europe.

The added value of cashmere and kid meat production in the Norwegian dairy goat industry.

In Norway milk is the major product of the goat industry and goat kids not needed for replacement are usually disposed of shortly after birth. Kidding normally takes place in February and the goats are housed until start of grazing in May or June. The grazing on the natural range pastures ends in September or October. The goats are then milked for a period of 1 -3 months and dried off 2 - 3 months before parturition. The result of this system is to have peak deliveries of milk from April to September and shortage during mid winter.

An even distribution of high quality milk is essential for the production of fresh goat cheeses. The study shows that adding cashmere fibre and utilising the market for goat meat would improve both income of the goat farmers as well as the seasonal distribution pattern of goats milk. The best outcome is achieved when additional measures, such as changing the time of kidding, are introduced.

On-farm food processing in France, the experience of the observatoire of innovation in Europe.

Increased competitiveness internally and externally to take advantage of positive world market developments is not the only objective of the CAP. The creation of alternative jobs and income opportunities for farmers and their families as well as the integration of environmental goals into the CAP are also two main objectives.

"On farm food processing" and direct selling are two profitable ways to add value to the raw material produced by the farms. This opportunity has to be developed particularly in less favoured areas, or in the regions where the increase in competitiveness cannot be reasonably achieved (periurban areas). The market for such products is not, obviously, the world market. The development of the market for on-farm processed products is relatively important, but the quantities which are concerned remain small relative to the capacity of industrial systems. We will examine 3 case studies, from the experience of the observatory of innovation (1 on the meat sector, 2 on the dairy sector), to show how the farmers can take advantage of a personalised relationship with the consumer to valorise the specific quality of their production on regional or urban micromarkets.

Such activities remain a source of jobs and activities in rural areas as long as industry and farmers remain non-concurrent, and farmers remain managers of their activity, risk and profit. "On-farm production" could be protected through official quality signs in Europe.

Extensive beef cattle production in Portugal: the added value of indigenous breeds in the beef market

Escola Superior Agrária de Castelo Branco, Quinta da Srª de Mércules, Portugal

Beef production in less favoured areas in Portugal is usually extensive, and along with forestry and agriculture is one of the main sources of income and employment. It has also an important role both on social and on environmental context. However, Portugal is not self sufficient in beef production and due to BSE crisis, it is difficult to envisage consumption making a full recovery in the short to medium term. There is a potential emergent market for beef, produced by Portuguese indigenous breeds in extensive systems, with an uniqueness characteristics. Beef from indigenous breeds is considered to be a high quality product by producers, and consumers, mainly because of the superior taste and structure of the meat resulting from the production methods: differences within breeds, slow growth rate and type of vegetation consumed. This fact allowed the enlargement of small niche markets and has lead to an increase of the value of the meat with protected designation of origin (PDO). The specificity of a product linked with a PDO has a fundamental role in the establishment of the strategies for agricultural enterprises and in rural development. Since Portuguese agriculture, can not compete on quantity or costs with other competitors, differentiation and quality seem to be the alternative to stimulate rural activities in LFAs and create a regional added value able to promote sustainable development. So, it is crucial to face and stimulate the maintenance of our extensive animal production systems. In this way, we will be able to deal with the new emergent problems like environmental and landscape protection. On the other hand, it will be possible to contribute to the decrease of the human and physical desertification of our rural areas.

Consumer expectations and behaviour in lamb and beef consumption in Germany: problems and opportunities for environmentally-friendly animal husbandry systems.

Faulty of International Agriculture, Dept Animal Husbandry, University of Kassel, Germany.

In Germany, sheep, cattle and goats are used for biotope conservation under agri-environmental schemes. These animals produce meat. The production yield of the animals is low, the meat quality worse compared to conventional fattening. On the market it competes with this meat from intensive farming. The marketing strategy and the promotion of meat produced while biotope grazing is different to conventional marketing, even to organic farming. In the EQULFA project, the, the possibilities and limitations of meat produced under agri-environmental schemes to fulfil consumer expectations and considering the consumption behaviour are examined. For the analysis, biotope grazing measures by animals have been chosen which use "added values" for the marketing strategy. "Added values" are based on: biotope conservation; rare breeds; traditional farming; organic farming etc. The markets for lamb from Rhön sheep ("Rhön lamb"), beef from Fleckvieh steers sold under the label of "Rhöner Weideochsen" and goat kid meat are taken for the evaluation. Goal of this work was to analyse the target groups of consumers for successful marketing of biotope conservation products with "added values" and to calculate the market potential for these products in the Biosphere Reserve Rhön.

All these limitations in marketing of meat produced under agri-environmental schemes shows the limited market potential. Nevertheless, the "Rhön lamb" shows that niche markets can be created. Emphasis in marketing of special products to special target groups is even profitable for producer and the intermediate trade. Cooperation between them is valuable for successful marketing of special products. The consumer must be convinced that he is just doing his best when he consumes the special dish and that the price is just right for the offered product. Promotion must create positive experience to consumers to eat meat with "added values". This is only possible when the producer and the intermediate trade is convinced himself in his product.

The role of agricultural policy in maintaining High Nature Value (HNV) farming systems in Europe.

The positive environmental role of High Nature Value (HNV) livestock systems in maintaining valued habitats and landscapes is achieving wider acceptance. The main threats to these HNV livestock systems are an increase in productivity in order to improve their farm incomes and abandonment of agricultural land. Continuity of traditional forms of management practices is essential for the maintenance of these areas.

Based on the development of the financial resources of the farm, a distinction is made between viable farms and farms at risk. Differences between farms in both categories are analysed with respect to the farm size, biophysical conditions and subsidies that farms are eligible for on the bases of present policies and proposed adjustments in policy.

The viability of livestock systems in some HNV areas in Europe (a.o. Dehesas, Valle d'Aosta, Black Forest, Dutch Peatlands, Scottish Highlands, Pindos Mountains) is investigated to see whether additional income is required to stay (or become) economically viable. This will be done in a consistent quantitative manner (based on the European data source FADN). Income can be improved by offering superior quality products or by support provided by the Common Agricultural Policy.

This paper will provide insight in the role the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and related structural and accompanying measures play and might play in maintaining HNV farming systems in Europe. The impact of a number of measures (i.e. the Less Favoured Area payments, headage premiums, agri-environmental measures) on the income and viability will be investigated. Feasible policy adjustments to maintain HNV farming systems will be explored. The impact of future developments, like expansion of the European Union with the Visegrad countries and further trade liberalisation, on HNV livestock systems is investigated as well.

A sound economic base is a prerequisite for a sustainable future of European cultural landscapes. Therefore, this paper will focus on the economic viability of HNV farming systems. However, not only the economic situation determines the viability, social and regional circumstances and demographic and political developments are important as well. Whenever solutions are proposed to sustain the economic viability, this has to be done under the restriction of viability of the habitat.

Department of Agribusiness, Extension and Rural Development, University College Dublin

With over 40,000 farmers blocking the capital city, Dublin in October 1998 protesting over the collapse of incomes from cattle farming and the failures of both EU and National policies to provide reasonable incomes for cattle farmers, a socio-economic analysis of the livestock sector in Ireland and the policies which shape it are relevant and important in the Irish context. Agriculture is the single largest industry in the Irish economy with 11 percent of the workforce directly employed in it. Irish agriculture also differs significantly from most of its EU partners in terms of its dependency on livestock. The average area of land devoted to crops in the EU on average is 40 percent while in Ireland it is 10 percent. Over half of Irish farmers are mainly cattle farmers and thus changes in prices in this sector have significant impact on rural areas.

Farmers are not a homogenous group and great variations exist across different regions of the country and across different enterprises. Dairy farming for example is 5 times more profitable than cattle farming and farming incomes in the East of the country are double those of the West. Within cattle farming there is also considerable variation, however, the most striking feature of the sector has been the predominance of extremely low incomes over a prolonged period. These low incomes prevail in spite of Ireland being a significant net benefactor from the EU.

Industrial development policy in Ireland from the 1960's to the 1980's focused mainly on developing industry and services in cities and centres with considerably large populations. This has created a significant pull in terms of population from rural areas; removing particularly the younger and more educated. It has also left a gap in that many rural areas have little industry and are heavily dependent on agriculture. The decline in the attractiveness of farming as a career for young people is currently evidenced by a shortage of labour in the sector and an increasing succession problem as farmers' sons and daughters have little inclination to return to a sector that's portrayed as having a very poor future.

Ireland has been to the forefront in Europe in pursuing rural development initiatives. It had the first European Pilot Programme on Rural Development; it is one of the countries that have most successfully implemented the LEADER programme. Most of Ireland is also covered by area partnerships, which have recently began to focus specifically on farming. Community activity and planning has become well organised and partnerships are being developed between community groups and statutory agencies. However, filling a 20 year void in terms or rural enterprise creation takes time, time, which is rapidly running out for a large segment of Irelands livestock farmers. To date little progress has been made within the farming sector and the increased enterprise/industrial activity has had little impact on an increasingly marginalised number of farmers. From a policy point of view, as is the case at European level, there are tensions between what is regarded as agricultural policy on the one hand and rural development policy on the other. What is clear though is that the restructuring of the agricultural sector will continue and the challenges for rural development are to create employment opportunities in rural areas that can compete with urban areas. If this is not achieved the consequences for rural areas are bleak, while urban areas will strive to cope with the social and economic problems of rapid urbanisation.

The implications of further CAP Reform on the regional impact of livestock headage payments in Scotland

This paper begins by estimating the regional redistributive effects of livestock headage payments in Scotland both immediately prior, and subsequent to, the 1992 CAP Reform. This will be carried out at a district level through a simple output and subsidy apportionment procedure, with subsequent GIS analysis providing graphic evidence of spatial inequalities. The current CAP Reform proposals (as they relate to headage payments for livestock) will then be briefly summarised. The likely impacts of such changes, given various combinations of policy options and macro-economic effects, will then be explored through scenario analysis. The compatibility of these scenarios with the aspirations of the European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP) and the signatories commitment to reconciling sectoral policies with the principle of socio-economic cohesion will then be discussed. Recommendations are made for the enhancement of the role of livestock headage payments in compensating for regional disadvantage

Greening LFA payments: the environmental dimension of agricultural support in disadvantaged areas of the United Kingdom.

The European Union's support for farming in Less Favoured Areas (LFAs) is implemented in the United Kingdom through headage payments for cattle and sheep. These payments cause environmental concern, since although formally social in nature, they are implicated in processes of agricultural intensification and management practices that reduce ecosystem integrity and landscape interest. In this paper, we examine the extent to which modification of the current policy mix could take such concerns into account. Initially, we review the evidence of environmental change, also taking into account afforestation and increasing recreational demands on the hills and uplands. An analysis of this evidence, in the context of current economic, cultural and social difficulties, is interwoven with the environmental perspective. The analysis is also related to farmer attitudes, drawn from a range of inquiries. We then examine options for change, particularly the conversion of the HLCA livestock headage payments to an area-based compensation, and greater cross-compliance with environmental preconditions. We conclude that scope exists for improved integration of social support for farming with measures to conserve and enhance the environment in hill and upland areas. However, more coherent policies that also encompass marketing and infrastructure could strike a more effective balance in attaining objectives for farming and society as a whole.

Integrating the multi-objective roles of livestock production activities in a policy for sustainable development: the case of the Italian area of "Carso". Gianluigi Gallenti1

1Dipartimento di Economia e Tecnica Aziendale, Università degli Studi di Trieste, Italy
2 Dipartimento di Scienze Economiche, Università degli Studi di Udine, Italy
3 Dipartimento di Scienze della Produzione Animale, Università degli Studi di Udine, Italy

This study analyses the relationship between livestock farming and landscape/habitat management and the development of agri-environmental measures, in the disadvantaged area of "Carso". This area, located in the neighbourhood of the city of Trieste, in the north-east of Italy (near Republic of Slovenia), exhibits social, demographic, economic and environmental problems connected with the industrial and commerce activities of the city, and the province is included in the Objective 2 areas of EU. However, the district around Trieste has some important rural characteristics. Most part of it lies on a Karst plateau with specific climatic, hydrological, geological and edaphic aspects, and a wide variance of ecological resources, common to a similar area in the Slovenian State. Moreover a Slovenian minority inhabits the Italian territory with an important cultural identity and rural traditions.

Agriculture in this area is an activity that adopts traditional production systems and exhibits the features of: (a) agriculture of marginal areas (limited possible land uses because of steep slopes, infertile soil, low productivity); (b) suburban agriculture (high tourist demand of environmental services and traditional products, local markets, increasing demand of non-agricultural land uses); (c) agriculture in areas with environmental conservation problems.

Therefore this area needs an integrated economic, social and environmental policy and a local authority (Provincia di Trieste) proposed, in 1997, an agri-forestry development plan made up of different projects. One particular project concerns the preservation of a local landscape, an heathland, called Landa Carsica (Karst heath). This landscape, created by wind erosion and grazing activity, represents a situation of transition from the grassland to the forest with important aspects for the biodiversity (plants, flowers and insects variety). Now, as a consequence of the abandonment of livestock husbandry the Landa Carsica is disappearing with natural and unmanaged succession of woodland and consequently increasing fire risk and biodiversity reduction.

The project, following the agri-environmental policy approach of the EU, integrates the multi-objective roles of livestock production activities. The re-introduction of a rare breed of sheep (pecora carsolina) in extensive production systems can preserve the Landa Carsica, reduce the fire risk, improve value-adding in livestock enterprises, satisfy the demand of environmental services and traditional agri-food products of high quality. This paper describes the economic, productive, social and environmental aspects of the area, proposes a multidisciplinary and multiple criteria analysis model, evaluates the costs and benefits of the project and the measure of the public financial support.

Livestock production systems and the vegetation dynamics of Less Favoured Areas (LFAs): developing viable systems to manage semi-natural vegetation in temperate LFAs in Spain.

Within those areas qualifying as less-favoured, great differences exist between areas of the EU, even in the same region; differences in the amount of available vegetation, farm size (area and herd size), socio-economic conditions, etc. However, though the zones have the same LFA classification, the possibilities to develop economically sustainable farming systems are very different and in many cases, extremely limited, especially in certain zones in the Mediterranean region. The compensation criteria that currently apply, without any type of modulation, do little to reduce the inequalities and may even act to increase them.

The objective of this work is to show the possibilities and limitations that exist for the development of economically sustainable systems in disadvantaged areas, and the effect of extensive livestock systems using cattle sheep or goats on the vegetation dynamics and biodiversity of the northern part of the Iberian peninsula.

The different livestock species show quite different grazing behaviour, and their weight gain is significantly different according to the type of vegetation on which they are grazed. In general, it is observed that the smaller species have a higher productivity in comparison with larger species, in particular when the availability of the most palatable grazing resources is decreased. Thus, while cattle may show drastic weight losses under conditions of herbage scarcity, sheep under similar circumstances, may have the ability to maintain weight and condition. Equally, within the same species, it has been shown that smaller genotypes have increased efficiency and productivity in terms of changes in weight per kg weight of the mother. In those zones predominated by woody species (heather and gorse) the goat shows the highest efficiency of utilisation and control of biomass. The presence of sheep will depend on the accessibility of the herbaceous species that generally are found at the base of the vegetation. Such accessibility increases as goats reduce the biomass of the woody species. In heather moorland, it has been observed that a mixed herd of sheep and goats produces 2.5 to 3 times more than cattle in the spring, the season most favourable for this latter species that has a higher ingestive capacity.

In reference to the vegetation dynamics, cattle hardly touch the woody species and their main effects are thus as a result of trampling. However, it has been observed that goats have a great capacity to halt, or reduce the accumulation of woody biomass, favouring the development of succulent herbage. Utilisation or control of such vegetation by sheep is significantly less and different from that of the goat. Annual accumulations of biomass in heather moorland of 6500, 11700 and 18500 kg MS/ha were recorded in plots grazed by goats, sheep or without grazing, respectively. Subsequently, the goat plots were dominated by herbaceous vegetation, the others by heather.

In the case of disadvantaged zones in valleys with grassy pastures, the possibilities for sustainability are quite different to the heather and mountain grasslands, where adequate selection of species and genotype have an essential role in efficiency of resource use. Larger genotypes with higher growth potential that are sought after for the most favourable areas are not necessarily those most appropriate for the least favoured regions.

The economics and ecology of extensively reared Highland Cattle in the Scottish LFA: an example of a self-sustaining livestock system.
Eric Bignal, David McCracken & Aeneas MacKay.

Wild cattle were a part of the native fauna of the forests, grasslands and marshes of post-glacial Scotland. Domestic cattle arrived with the first human colonists about 5000 years ago and from these was developed the Kyloe of the Highlands and western Islands - the breed stock of Highland cattle. A transhumant cattle economy developed which reached its heyday in the nineteenth century when 150,000 cattle per annum were taken across the drove roads from the west to the markets in the east. The ecological effect of this pastoral economy must have been dramatic.

The ecological importance of European livestock rearing systems has been underestimated until relatively recently when the failure of management policies on nature sites and the losses in biodiversity on farmland both pointed to the decline of pastoralism as the major influencing factor. The historical importance of interactions between the land and pastoral-based economies in shaping the biological and physical characteristics of the European countryside, is now becoming more widely recognised. However there tends to be a very narrow view of the role of grazing animals, especially amongst "conservationists". So often the animals, the management practices and their effects on the vegetation are seen outside of the context of the pastoral farming systems within which they evolved. In many places grazing by domestic livestock is regarded simply as "a management tool" - its new environmental justification isolated from its agricultural and cultural origins. Such an approach is not sustainable because there is not a balanced relationship between ecological, social and economic goals.

Initiatives on the Hebridean islands of Mull and Islay illustrate that it is possible to develop a more integrated self-sustaining agricultural land management; one which is rooted in the traditional regional pastoral system but with the objective of meeting modern needs. The wider application to the Scottish LFA of the approach is discussed together with the effects of past and current agricultural policy and proposed policy reforms.

Biotope conservation with ruminants in Germany: the example of goats on shrub-infested slopes.

Faulty of International Agriculture, Dept Animal Husbandry, University of Kassel, Germany.

In less favoured areas, traditional husbandry systems cannot be kept up. Secondary succession endangers different biotopes in cultural landscape. Special attention has to be paid to goats because of their good ability to keep the growth of invasive shrubs under control. In Germany, goats have always been housed and were kept in small herds, normally for dairy production. For this reason, research on goats in free range has only recently begun in Germany. This article presents first results on new grazing strategies taking only ecological and animal-based factors and no economic factors into consideration. Taking the example of two different trials, it is shown how goat grazing can influence shrub-infested calcareous grassland biotopes. One trial compared the behaviour of goats in separate herds and in mixed herds with sheep. Also, the impact of the grazing pressure on the vegetation was measured. Additionally, results from a long term trial are presented which show changes in plant communities and scrub growth. Taken as a whole, it leads to a new management system integrating goats into landscape management systems.

A multidisciplinary framework for optimising the intensity of grassland management in mountain regions of Austria

Grassland accounts for about 60% of agricultural land in Austria and is, therefore, a key element of both the landscape and the agricultural economy. The intensity of management of this grassland varies considerably and is becoming increasingly polarised; there is a tendency toward either over-exploitation or underuse (even abandonment). Both these extremes have negative ecological, economic, social and cultural consequences, which are particularly important in disadvantaged mountain regions, where grassland dominates the agricultural landscape. There is an obvious need to investigate grassland management trends and evaluate both the distribution and underlying causes of the various levels of intensity of grassland management in these mountain regions. This is the objective of a multidisciplinary research project established as part of the MAB-programme (a UNESCO initiative).

A pilot study in Central Ennstal (Styria) has already been completed and this work combined ecological findings with biological yield studies and socio-economic analyses. A theoretical model was first constructed to represent the dynamic interconnections (within grassland management decisions) between social factors, economic rationale, process-based decisions, production possibilities and ecological components. The model was then reflected in the design of the field research. This paper describes the basic structure of this model and the opportunities and problems associated with multidisciplinary research involving agricultural economists, geographers, botanists and production technologists. The paper also presents the first empirical results obtained using this multi-disciplinary approach. Economic research based on a detailed survey of 125 farmers has produced, for example, the following insights:

The farmer survey was complemented by a detailed analysis of 377 separate grassland units, where the broad background of socio-economic aspects (including the demands made on grassland by non-agricultural uses) could be examined in conjunction with surveys of mowing and fertiliser regimes, yield analyses and analyses of the local vegetation ecology. By combining these results within a multidisciplinary study, the research makes up for a general deficit in broad socio-economic (grassland) research in Austria. More importantly, it also provides the foundations for a flexible environmental economic model which can help identify optimal levels of management for grassland in mountain regions, and which can take into account the perspectives of economics, production, tourism, environmental protection and ecology.