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The James Hutton Institute

This page is no longer updated. The Macaulay Land Use Research Institute joined forces with SCRI on 1 April 2011 to create The James Hutton Institute.

Please visit the James Hutton Institute website.

Alberto Bernues & Ana Maria Olaizola
University of Edinburgh, UK, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain.
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Sheep Grazing in the Holm Oak Forests (Dehesas) of Cuatro Lugares, Spain
Situation, Problems and possible Solutions from an ecological and socio-economic point of view
Claudia Wilbrand & Tobias Plieninger
Institute of Forest Policy and Nature Conservation, University of Göttingen, Germany

Video - Making your sheep work - diversification in sheep production
Fergus Wood
Scottish Fine Wool Producers, UK.

Farming systems are often a complex elaboration of the human societies they belong to. Untangling main social and structural constraints may increase productivity and allow sensible regional policies to be devised without implying environmental costs. In Castile-La Mancha the third-largest region (some 8 million ha of total agricultural land, TAL) within the European Union, the arable land occupies 60 % of TAL, the rest being natural pasture, shrub-steppe vegetation (eriales) and Mediterranean-type forests. Natural resources support a regional flock of some 3 million Manchega breeding ewes. A typology of the system has been drafted (Caballero, 1998). Our main development strategy is to integrate crop (mainly non-irrigated winter cereals) and sheep farming, by increasing the forage legume acreage into the crop rotation to meet the forage deficit and assessing the main causes that disincline farmers towards the sheep operation. The main social groups in our research are crop farmers, pastoralists and local advisory staff. Our critical objective is the poligonos de pastos or grazing polygons where interests of cultivators and pastoralists may interact. Seasonally-distributed grazing resources (cereal, legumes and sunflower stubbles, fallows, natural pasture, shrub-steppe vegetation and undergrowth of Mediterranean-type forest) are patched in two types of polygons: parcelled polygons with grazing rights compulsorily-allocated to land-less pastoralists and segregated polygons with grazing rights linked to property of medium-to-high (>150 ha) landholdings. Integration of crops and sheep farming is evaluated by two main indicators: the percentage of farmers which operate both cereal and sheep and the extent of the forage deficit: days that complementary forage legume resources allow to meet the forage void (some 180 d) induced by the seasonality of natural resources (Caballero, 1993)

Implications

ELPEN: European Livestock Policy Evaluation Network: EU funded Concerted Action

Given the huge diversity of livestock systems and environments within the European Community, one of the challenges facing policy-makers today is how to achieve a balance between the negative and positive economic, social and environmental impacts of livestock policy. One of ELPEN's first tasks was to complete an assessment of policy-makers' needs in better appraising the impacts of livestock policy. The results of this assessment were then incorporated into the design of a workable framework within which European livestock systems can be characterised for the purposes of economic, environmental and social impact analysis on a regional basis.

One of the first steps towards achieving this was the elaboration of a classification system. This system consists of 16 different modules, each of which represents one aspect of livestock systems and is filled with a list of variables and indicators which adequately describe this. The system represents a way of ordering and storing large amounts of data for the purpose of interrogation. Once populated with relevant data the system will also enable European livestock systems to be characterised in economic, environmental and socio-economic terms. In order to do this existing statistical data can be combined with expert knowledge and ad hoc sources formalised in a "knowledge system".

In order to assess policy impacts on a regional basis, in particular, environmental and socio-economic impacts, the data contained in the classification system will be presented spatially to produce regional typologies of livestock systems using GIS (Geographical Information Systems). This has already been completed for selected examples in which livestock data is combined with other variables such as climate, soil type, latitude and altitude.

"Preta" breed, a Portuguese beef cattle: economic and environmental objectives in natural resource management.

²Associação de Criadores de Bovinos de Raça Preta, Ermida de S. José, Samora Correia, Portugal

The first results are presented from a socio-economic research programme about the native "Preta" cattle breed, which is bred in traditional and low intensity animal production systems. These farming systems are based on a rustic native breed and whose geographic area of breeding surpasses a little the zone of the systems of "montado". We use a methodology of economical accounts, which is an adaptation of the SEC system to the study of the extensive Mediterranean systems. A brief zootechnical characterisation of the breed is presented, of the "Preta Cattle Breeder's Association" and of the studied "type cases". These are representative of the three subsystems in which the productive agrosilvopastoral systems are divided:

The model is completed with a brief analysis of the impact of the PDO institution on the final product's valorisation - the beef of the "Preta" cattle breed.

An Evaluation of the Shropshire Hills ESA from the Farm Business Perspective

Agri-environmental payments are becoming increasingly important policy tools in the regulation of farm output and the protection of countryside features. The Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESA) scheme set up in the UK in 1986 is an important land designation under European Union regulation 2078/92 which accompanied the Common Agricultural Policy reform in 1992. ESAs seek to enhance and protect landscape, geological and archaelogical features by the adoption of more traditional or reduced intensity systems of farming in exchange for direct payments. There are currently 22 designated ESAs covering 1.15 million hectares or 10 per cent of the agricultural land in England.

In this study the participants and non-participants in the Shropshire Hills ESA were interviewed to explore the actual and perceived implications of ESA membership on the farm business. In all 42 farmers were visited and questioned about their farming operations, participation in the scheme and future aspirations. Results of the study suggest that farmers who entered the scheme generally farmed at a more intensive level than non-participants. Reasons for non-participation included the perception that that the scheme was bureaucratic and restrictive of farming operations. It was concluded that in the Shropshire Hills increased participation could be encouraged by higher payments which would also enhance the viability of a group of farm businesses which appear to be increasingly at risk of failing in what has always been an area of depressed farm incomes.

Dipartimento Agronomia, Selvicoltura e Gestione del territorio, University of Torino, Italy

In the north-western Italian hills, traditional livestock farming systems are widely based on continuously housed animals and on temporary meadows and cereals. Cropping techniques and animal management originate directly from the intensive agriculture of the plains, but the lower and less reliable forage crop yields and animal performance generally reduce the technical efficiency and the farm income. Changed technical, social and economical conditions have affected the survival of traditional hill livestock farming. In this situation, there is a need for reducing costs and improving the utilisation of fodder resources by means of more extensive forage systems, and to develop model farms to encourage farmers from the traditional systems to more sustainable and profitable ones.

In the framework of the EU project LEADER I, the University of Torino and the local mountain community (Alta Langa, Cuneo province) since the early 90_s, have supported the transformation of two demonstration farms into pastoral farms exploiting exclusively natural and semi-natural grasslands. The aim was to improve the extension and the transfer of information by means of technicians and farmers to other hill farms (Cavallero et al., 1998).

Two representative farms were chosen. The largest one (62 ha) is a mixed-purpose farm (MF), dairy (sheep and cow) for cheese making and beef production; the second, (36 ha) mainly breeds of dairy sheep (SF).

The project was set up for a 5 years period (1993-1997) with a step-by-step transformation plan progressively introducing new techniques and management tools, to facilitate their introduction in the farm system and to improve the comprehension by the farmer.

1) livestock farming system transformation through more extensive cropping techniques and rational grazing development (e.g.: improvement of sward composition and nutritive quality, adoption of more adequate equipment and shelters);

2) maintenance of efficient farms, more suitable to exploit these natural resources for the environment and landscape protection;

Financial support was set to contribute to farm transformation costs, such as fences, drinkers, milking machines, dairy equipment etc. Particularly, attention was given to the analysis of the manpower contributions. In all the farm processes a daily computation of the working hours and of the family component involved in work was assessed. The farm transformation was also analysed for "quality of life", collecting the opinions of the farm family or by indexes, such as the contribution of young people to the farm work.

A complete farm balance sheet was filled before, during and after the farm transformation. A separate economic analysis was drawn for each farm process when possible (e.g. milk production cost; ration and feeding costs; cheese making cost from sheep or cow milk).

The transformation was entirely successful in the two farms, now holding themselves up as model farms. The family farm incomes increased by 50% at AM and by 7% at AS. A farm holiday activity (restoration) was introduced in the AS farm, as a consequence of the reduced family work, but it was not considered in the farm balance sheet.

The transformation of the two farms has allowed the achievement of the following objectives:

3) training of specialised technical staff, able to apply conservation and valorisation programs in hill farming systems;

4) suggestions in orienting agricultural and economic policy in these environments.

The two demonstration farms now represent live models for livestock farming system. Several farmers, especially the youngest ones have appreciated and followed the models. The two demonstrative farms now

represent living models of livestock farming systems that several, especially the younger farmers, are following.

Dipartimento Produzioni Animali, Epidemiologia ed Ecologia, University of Torino, Italy

The enforcement of EU Directive 92/46/EC, relevant to hygiene standards for producing and marketing milk and dairy products, and the structural requirements of dairies are causing some difficulties to producers and to the competent authorities. With respect to the structural features, some restrictions derive from the application of the Directive in relation to the concession of temporary dispensations for the sanitary aspects of the dairies.

The aim of this study was to assess the hygienic-structural conditions on small farms of Piedmont (NW Italy), located in disadvantaged mountain areas. To make the dispositions clearer the study attempted to assess the minimum hygienic standards required by the Directive. The tool of the investigation, a standard form, allowed information to be collected on the following parameters: location of the farm, altitude, breeds, consistency, milk yield, manure management and hygienic-structural conditions of the farms (i.e. cleaning of milking machines and cheese-making room and equipment, maturation room, and cleaning facilities). Within each parameter assessments were focused to describe and evaluate in a more accurate way hygienic-sanitary, structural and management conditions, according to a scale of 4 levels: absence of requirement (0), sufficient (1), discreet (2), excellent (3), by adopting the operational scheme of the standard form. The research included 24 farms particularly representative of such management conditions.

Results showed that the average level for most of the examined issues fell between a range of 0.5 to 1.5; the outcomes relevant to the "hygienic facilities" and cheese making room are particularly critical. This research has also pointed out different structural characteristics of these farms: in such a situation, it is not possible to define the formalities of acceptance of such laws even if the evaluation has given good results about its objectivity. It does not appear always possible to effect transformations requested by the most rigorous interpretation of the law because the structures are often situated in strongly disadvantaged areas and very few dairies possess the requisites prescribed.

In conclusion, this research has tried to document the complexity of these problems in objective terms. Most of the farms currently producing cheese in a mountainous environment are risking to be made illegal. Therefore, it will be necessary to press for an intervention of the public administration that will aid the rapid adjustment of alpine farms to the EU regulations, taking into account the importance of safeguarding typical and appreciated cheese production techniques.

Erik A. Hult, Dep. of Rural Development Studies, Swedish University of Agriculture

The poster reports results from ongoing farming system experiments at Ekhaga Experimental Farm at Uppsala, and participatory research with a farmer at Vattholma, Sweden. The research carried out at Ekhaga is experimenting with different group sizes of 30 to 120 hens and two different models of mobile hen houses. The research interest is focused on a poultry production with low external input of grain and imported protein, the protein maintenance of the hen, the individual feed choice of layers and evaluation of cross-breeds for free-range.

Mobile poultry houses and free choice feeding appears to be a good free-range system for egg production. The cornerstone of this system is the free choice feeding and the flexibility this gives to the individual hen. The major principle is to give the hen a possibility to choose between different feed components and thereby the ratio of energy to protein. In practice this is made by offering the hen feed components in different containers; for instance, two varieties of grain, wheat and oat, seashells and a source of more concentrated protein as e.g. fishmeal. It is important that the more concentrated protein source has a good mix of essential amino acids, especially methionine and lysine. One concentrated source used today is a mix of 70% meat and bone meal and 30% fishmeal. This functions well and also facilitates the maintenance of phosphorus and calcium. The hen can then adjust her indoor feed intake depending on the amount of fodder found on the grassland, number of eggs produced, physical activity and temperature. Free-range poultry farming exposes the hen to many more environmental changes than indoor production in relation to temperature, wind and rain.

The major advantages of this concept are the possibilities it offers for fresh pasture, reduced fodder costs, higher self-sufficiency in fodder and the role of the hens in the crop rotation. The pasture contributes to the feed intake by providing clover, young grass and herbs but also worms and insects. The hens contribute fertiliser to the fields. By supplying cultivated whole grain as whole instead of buying a compound feed feeding costs can be reduced. If whole grains are given the hens must also be fed grit to be able to grind the grains. Mobile houses also make it possible for the hens to participate in and contribute to the farm system more than by only producing eggs, by e.g. own feed seeking at pasture, integration in crop rotation, fertilisation and to some extent weed control, and integration together with cattle or other animals, in manure spreading and parasite reduction. The principals are an age-old practice, and are still practised by smallholders to produce eggs for own consumption and local sale. The challenge is to argument for wider use and its productivity whilst optimising its ecosystem services at scales of interest to full time farmer. Neither the economic viability nor the labour and management costs have been estimated so far.

Social and economic impact of a cheese PDO (Queijo de Nisa) on the local cheese production and processing (North of Alentejo, Portugal)

² Escola Superior Agrária de Castelo Branco, Quinta da Srª de Mércules, Castelo Branco, Portugal.

The cheese Queijo de Nisa is a Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) whose production began in 1995. In this PDO geographical production area, the processors use recognised and traditional know-how to produce a semi-hard sheep cheese from raw milk.

This cheese is produced in a less favoured area (LFA), North of Alentejo, where the agriculture plays a dual role, either provider of foods, or of rural environmental and cultural services. It includes high natural value farming systems such as keeping sheep, goats and beef cattle on wooded agro-pastoral land and Mediterranean scrub.

In that geographical area were identified two different types of cheese dairy: 9 processors and 23 no processors of Queijo de Nisa PDO. We surveyed all the 32 cheese dairies and we present results of that survey. We compare the two types of cheese dairy following the different pattern of social organisation, the advances in technology, the origin of milk (the own activity of sheep milk or the exterior purchase), the relationships with the distributors, the occurrence of young successors to the cheese production. This study further reports the value of two different cheeses as they leave the cheese dairy, and compares the impacts of each type of cheese dairy on employment. The results suggest that the PDO has had a positive social impacts in the LFA area of North of Alentejo (Portugal).

Situation, Problems and possible Solutions from an ecological and socio-economic point of view

Institute of Forest Policy and Nature Conservation, University of Göttingen, Germany

Introduction

Approximately 3,5 million hectares of the Southwest of the Iberian Peninsula are covered with grasslands and scattered trees (dehesas). Dehesas have been created by an agrosilvopastoral land-use over centuries. Extensive grazing and arable cultivation under a thin layer of Holm Oaks (Quercus ilex) and Cork Oaks (Quercus suber) rotate in long terms.

Area of Investigation

The study area "Cuatro Lugares" is situated in Extremadura, Spain. According to EU-classification it is an "Objective 1 region" as well as a "less favoured area". 56% of the working population are employed in livestock farming, mainly with sheep and cattle. The dehesas of Cuatro Lugares have a strong importance as breeding and preying area for globally endangered species like the Spanish Imperian Eagle (Aquila adalberti). The study aimed to answer the questions:

Does the actual pattern of vegetation of the dehesas in Cuatro Lugares agree with the ideal for conservation ?

Which management practices do farmers apply in sheep husbandry and commercialisation ?

How can farming in accordance with conservation be guaranteed by means of public programs and marketing strategies?

Methods

A mapping of the dehesas was carried out by means of aerial photographs. The counted dehesas were cartographically overlapped by land register maps in order to describe the structure of land property. On eight farms (fincas) we realised an inventory of vegetation. On the same fincas we carried out interviews with the farmers about their agricultural practices as well as their socio-economical situation. We got further information through evaluation of statistics and literature as well as through discussions with experts.

Considerable parts of the dehesas of Cuatro Lugares are in public property. The Holm Oaks (Quercus ilex) have a very unbalanced distribution of age classes. The traditional raising of free-running pigs has declined, livestock of sheep and cattle have increased. Local breeds like the merino-sheep are still highly relevant. Farmers gave up traditional practices like shepherding and transhumance and are dependent on externally produced forage. They produce lamb-meat in a semi-intensive way and commercialise mainly by a local co-operative directly to the national centres of consume.

Central threat to the continuity of the dehesas is the gradual clearing of Holm Oak stands and an intensification that expels sustainable agricultural practices. The clearing of stands is especially caused by:

Intensifications are increased input of energy and matter, replacement of indigenous breeds by highly productive breeds, concentration of land use on one or two livestock species, products that are less adopted to the natural site potentials of dehesas (e.g. cattle instead of sheep) and the abandonment of elements and practices of cultural landscapes such as traditional stonewalls or shepherding.

Possible Solutions

Due to its large stands of dehesas with high nature conservation value and due to the economic significance of animal husbandry, we suggest to establish a model project for dehesa conservation in Cuatro Lugares. Guiding principle should be the development of large dehesas with characteristic flora and fauna as well as a high diversity of land use types and places of work.

As a first step, dehesa-farms could even today transform to ecological agriculture or take part in agri-environmental programs. Common initiatives in Cuatro Lugares could develop projects as e.g. an ideal management of dehesas boyales (dehesas in public property) or an added-value marketing of dehesa-products unter a quality label with conservation criteria. On a larger scale a new design of agri-environment and forestation programs specifically for regions and habitats is required as well as a basic conservation based reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the EU. In the long run we recommend the institution of a biosphere reserve in order to harmonise conservation and regional development.

On-farm forage protein production for sustainable livestock systems: The case for intercropping in the UK

Issues associated with the traceability, sustainability and cost of bought-in protein have led to a closer examination of the home grown protein sources in the UK. One method of achieving this goal is to intercrop maize (rich in starch) with protein forages, the aim being to produce a balanced forage diet requiring less concentrate supplementation.

A series of experiments at the University of Reading have been undertaken to evaluate the agronomic potential, silage quality, digestibility and financial viability of maize-sunflower (MS), maize- kale (MK) and maize runner bean (MRB) combinations in comparison to maize (M). MK (19.9 t DM ha-1) and MRB (15.5 t DM ha-1 )combinations produced higher drymatter yields than M (15.4 t DM ha-1) and MS (13.22 t DM ha-1) combinations. All intercrop silages had higher crude protein levels (MS- 137 g kg -1 , MRB- 120 g kg -1, MK- 105 g kg -1 ) than maize (M- 81 g kg -1) . In feeding trials with sheep there were no significant differences in voluntary feed intake between the four silages. However, the fibre digestibility of the MS was significantly lower (p<.001) than that for maize. Conclusions are drawn about the potential for intercropping in sustainable livestock systems.

France Drugmant & Dominique Salvi
Fédération des Parcs Naturels Regionaux de France.

The disappearance of traditional grazing practices endangers biodiversity in many interesting environments: damp meadow, marsh, peat bog, moorland, and arid grassland. Concerned to safeguard this living heritage, the managers of protected areas in France have experimented with "ecopastoralism" - the management of the environment by extensive grazing. Amongst these, 30 pilot sites have been assembled within a national network for research and demonstration to aid in the sharing of results and experience. This network is known as E.S.P.A.C.E. (Entretien des Sites à Préserver par des Animaux Conduits en Extensif )

Data collected on the pilot sites has enabled references to be established on the management of natural environments by grazing, and to encourage the involvement of the main actors. The programme aims to define:

These references ought not only to contribute to the establishment of management plans in the protected sites, but also to the definition of economic ways to manage many land types facing agricultural decline. These concerns have a wider significance than the protected areas of France and apply to all the marginal areas of Europe.

The ESPACE network brings together the French networks of nature reserves, regional natural parks, national parks, regional site conservatoires, into a common programme. While representing a wide rage of habitat types, all the sites have as an objective the maintenance or restoration of an open landscape by extensive mixed or single-species grazing with cattle, horses or sheep.

To keep up with the state of progress, and to reflect on the subject of "ecopastoralism", land managers have an annual meeting. Communication is enhanced by regular publications and a newsletter, "Pique-Boeuf".

The ESPACE programme is cofinanced for 5 years by the Ministry of Land Management and the Environment, the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, the National Office of Hunting (Office National de la Chasse) and the European Commission (DGXI, LIFE environment) and Natural reserves of France. The project is coordinated by the Federation of Regional Natural Parks.

Alessandro Scappini & Antonnella Zari
Ministry of Foreign Affairs - Istituto Agronomico per l'Oltremare - Florence (Italy)

THE PROJECT The Italian Co-operation has funded a three-year development project that started in February 1997, to assist the general Directorates of Animal Production and Veterinary Services to develop their sectorial policies. The Istituto Agronomico per l'Oltremare (I.A.O.), a technical institution belonging to the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, was charged of the implementation of project activities. The project "Livestock Development and Veterinary Assistance in Albania" (Programma Zootecnico Integrato in Albania ) has been divided in three sub-projects: A) Cattle Reproduction Improvement B) Assistance to Veterinary Services C) Institutional Collaboration in Applied Research The objective of the project is to provide a support for the transition process of the livestock and veterinary sector from a planned economy to a market economy, providing assistance to the involved institutions, farmers associations and private operators. The project includes qualified technical assistance, training courses to be held both in Italy and locally, applied research activities, as well as the supply of specific equipment

A) CATTLE REPRODUCTION IMPROVEMENT Development objectives The long - term objective of the project is improved productivity of livestock and increased income of rural small farmers by restructuring and strengthening of the zootechnical institutions, involving at the same time the private sector in the provision of veterinary and animal breeding services at farm level. Immediate objective 1. Reorganization and strengthening of the artificial insemination service adapted to the nearly privatised agriculture.

1. Establishment of an A.I. recording system for improved quality and management of the service. 3) Preparation of a plan for the implementation of nucleus milk recording scheme first to monitor productivity of dairy cows and later to be used for progeny testing of A.I. bulls.

B) VETERINARY SERVICES Development objectives The attention is mainly focused on the major zoonosis, i.e. brucellosis, tuberculosis and anthrax, that cause both economic losses in terms of animal production and human suffering among the rural population . Intermediate and immediate objectives - Strengthening of the Instituti i Kerkimeve Veterinarie (I.K.V.)of Tirana, - setting up of 5 regional veterinary laboratories, - training courses in Italy and Albania for the technical stuff of the Veterinary Services and for private veterinary - supply of field programme equipment. - animal identification. In order to control the most urgent zoonosis it is important to physically identify the animals that have been tested and/or vaccinated.. - Improved production of biological and diagnostic supports.

C) INSTITUTIONAL COLLABORATION IN APPLIED RESEARCH Project strategies. The objective is essentially to help the IKZ identify and carry out the research and to facilitate contacts between the Institute itself and Italian and foreign research institutions operating in the zootechnical field. The trials under way so far can be summed up as follows: